Introduction
Each of us searches for God. Though what we are looking for might change as we grow and mature, we still continue to ask the questions. For example: Why am I here? What is the purpose of my life? How do I deal with my limitations? Where is God? How does God function in my life? Why does evil exist? Each theologian in this book was chosen to help you continue your journey, to help you explore the questions you ponder in new and insightful ways as it leads you to personal answers.
Chapter 1: Martin Buber
- For Buber, part of what allows an “I-Thou” relationship to exist is not being aware of it. “However, as soon as we become aware of this unique bond, evaluation and judgment interfere, and the dialogue turns to an ÔI-It'” (page 3). Because Buber thought about his relationship with the horse, did it cease to exist from that point forward? Was the relationship between the horse and Buber an “I-Thou” relationship? Do you think the same would happen if it had been a relationship between two people?
- Buber uses the term “earthly fullness” (page 6) to describe the state that God's presence achieves when individuals enter into a relationship with one another. Do you think that the world is more “full” with divine presence on account of these relationships? Do you believe that these relationships between individuals help to form God's greatness? Does Judaism allow for an ever-changing God?
- Buber addresses the issue of what one calls God. He states, “All God's names are hallowed, for in them He is not merely spoken about, but also spoken to” (page 7). What are the names of God in our Torah? Where else do we address God directly, and what is the language we use to do so? Do you think that giving a name to God makes God an “It” rather than a “Thou”?
- “But when he, too, who abhors the name, and believes himself to be godless, gives his whole being to addressing the Thou of his life, as a Thou that cannot be limited by another, he addresses God” (page 7). How do you feel about this statement? Do you believe that one who is unaware of God in one's life can still be reaching toward the Eternal Divine when entered into “I-Thou” relationships? Or, do you think one needs to believe in God for that to be a possibility?
- The ability to reach God through “I-Thou” relationships is one of Buber's main beliefs. He looks at this idea differently throughout his works. At one point he says, “To look away from the world, or to stare at it, does not help a man to reach God; but he who sees the world in Him stands in His presence” (page 9). What does this quotation mean to you? Do you think if people viewed the world this way, understanding that it resided in God and that each person enters into a relationship with it, the world would be different? Does God fit into how you approach and see the world?
Chapter 2: Mordecai M. Kaplan
- “If I am not for myself, who will be for me? If I am but for myself, what am I?” (Pirkei Avot 1:14). Kaplan uses this quotation to link his idea of salvation as being twofold, both personal and social. It is important for us to stand up for ourselves, but it is also important to help define ourselves by our relationships and interactions with others. When you think about the concept of salvation, does it have both a personal and a social aspect for you? Do you think salvation is achievable if only one of those components is there?
- Kaplan writes, “Likewise, the more eager we are to shape human life in accordance with some ideal pattern of justice and cooperation, the more reasons we discover for being dissatisfied with ourselves, with our limitations, and with our environment. If, therefore, culture and social sympathy are not to break our hearts, but to help us retain that sureness of the life-feeding which is our native privilege, they must make room for religious faith which is needed as a tonic to quicken the pulse for our personal existence” (page 20). What do you think Kaplan means by this statement? How do you think religious faith plays a role in your life? Does it help to balance it out? Is it its own entity? Can it play a different part depending on where your life is at that moment? Does having a religious belief enable you to look at these natural limitations we have and be less disconcerted?
- What does belief in God mean to you? How does having that particular belief affect your life? Kaplan defines belief in God as follows: “To believe in God means to accept life on the assumption that it harbors conditions in the outer world and drives in the human spirit which together impel man to transcend himself. To believe in God means to take for granted that it is man's destiny to rise above the brute and to eliminate all forms of violence and exploitation from human society. In brief, God is the Power in the cosmos that gives human life the direction that enables the human being to reflect the image of God” (22). Does Kaplan's description fit with yours? Do you think it is adequate?
- In his writings, Kaplan asks the question, “What is evil?” He states, “The modern man cannot possibly view earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, devastating storms and floods, famines and plagues, noxious plants and animals, as “necessary” to any preconceived plan or purpose” (page 26). Kaplan believes that these areas are still untouched by God. If that is so, what does that do to our own God concept? Do we need to rearrange what we think? Do you believe that God allows the evil in the world to happen? How do we reconcile God and the existence of evil?
Chapter 3: Erich Fromm
- Fromm defines religion as “any system of thought and action shared by a group which gives the individual a frame of orientation and an object of devotion” (page 30). What is your definition of religion? What about Fromm's definition do you agree/disagree with? Do you think his definition would include groups that otherwise wouldn't be considered religions? If so, do you think that is problematic?
- As reflected in these texts, what are some of the differences between humanistic Judaism and Reform Judaism? Fromm writes, “Humanistic religion . . . is centered around man and his strength. Man must develop his power of reason in order to understand himself, his relationship to his fellow men and his position in the universe” (page 35). Do you think God needs to be a central part of religion? If those who practice humanistic religion don't have God, what becomes central to them? And how does that function on a larger scale?
- In talking about the matriarchal phases of religion, Fromm states, “Mother's love is unconditional, it is all-protective, all-enveloping; because it is unconditional it can also not be controlled or acquired. Its presence gives the loved person a sense of bliss; its absence produces a sense of lostness and utter despair” (page 37). Regarding patriarchal love, he says, “The nature of fatherly love is that he makes demands, establishes principles and laws, and that his love for the son depends on the obedience of the latter to these demands. He likes best the son who is most like him, who is most obedient and who is best fitted to become his successor, as the inheritor of his possessions” (page 37). Does Judaism fit into either of these definitions? Is it a combination? Do you think that Judaism has evolved over time, taking on parts of these definitions as it has progressed? Do you think that people in the different movements of Judaism would react to these definitions differently?
- How does Fromm define his “nontheistic mysticism” (page 41)? How is your God concept different from the one he presents? Do you believe that Judaism can exist without a belief in God?
Chapter 4: Abraham Joshua Heschel
- Heschel believes that each inquiry needs to come from some sort of knowledge. So when we in turn ask ourselves about God, we are already making the assumptions from prior knowledge. This leads us to the absolute minimal theory, that God is alive. Knowing that God is alive, where do we go from there? Heschel believes that “a search for God involves a search of our own measure, a test of our own spiritual potential” (page 46). Do you think we need to take into account where we are at this moment when thinking about our own personal search for God? Can you define God? What is it that we know that enables us to even dare ask about God?
- Heschel defines God as “He who holds our fitful lives together, who reveals to us that what is empirically diverse in color, in interest, in creedsÑraces, classes, nationsÑis one in His eyes and one in essence” (page 49). Do you believe that this is the God that exists? Would the world be different if everyone believed that this is the type of God who exists? Does this concept leave room for free will?
- Heschel writes, “There is no faith at first sight. A faith that comes into being like a butterfly is ephemeral. He who is swift to believe is swift to forget. Faith does not come into being out of nothing, inadvertently, unprepared, as an unearned surprise. Faith is preceded by awe, by acts of amazement at things that we apprehend but cannot comprehend . . . we must learn how to see Ôthe miracles which are daily with us'; we must learn how to live in awe, in order to attain the insights of faith” (page 50). Describe what faith means to you. What elements must it include? Is it something you are aware of on a daily basis? Is faith something that you talk about with your family or friends?
- In ages of violence, at times the question “Where is God?” has been asked. Heschel would argue that God has been silenced. Man has done evil. Depending on your personal view of God, what do you think about a God who can be silenced by His own creation? Do you agree with Heschel's view that God has been silenced rather than being silent? Do you think the world needs to change for God to gain a voice?
Chapter 5: Roland B. Gittelsohn
- Gittelsohn defines God as “that reality in the universe which impels man to reach out for love, justice, and truth; which makes it possible for them to be realized; which conserves and sustains them in the same sense that He conserves and sustains the law of gravity” (page 63). He also believes that there is a strong connection between God and nature. How does this relationship fit within his definition of God? Do you think the interactions between man and God and between nature and God are similar?
- Our ancestors had personal Gods. If you think about the Amidah prayer, it specifically mentions our fathers by name and makes reference to each of their Gods. When asked if he believes in a personal God, Gittelsohn responds, “If you mean by these words a God who can possibly be conceived in terms analogous to human personality, no, I do not believe in a personal God. But if you mean a God who is the most intense personal reality of my life, functioning personally in everything I think and feel and do, then God is indeed personal for me” (page 67). What do you think about this statement? What do you think about the concept of a personal God? Like Gittelsohn, do you believe God functions personally in everything you do?
- Toward the end of the section “No Miracles Today,” Gittelsohn asks, “What kind of world would this be if God could interrupt the laws of nature whenever He felt like it or whenever someone asked Him to in prayer?” (page 71). How would you answer this question? Having read pieces of text written by Gittelsohn, what type of answer would he construct?
Chapter 6: Emil L. Fackenheim
- Fackenheim writes, “Before he makes the decision of faith, he is free not to make it. . . . After the decision of faith, there is no freedom to reject God; there is merely freedom to rebel against Him. But in rebellion as well as in submission, man now testifies to God” (page 74). Do you think there was a point in your life where you had the ability to choose or not choose faith? Was faith just understood as part of your upbringing? Have you ever questioned the idea of faith and what that means to you?
- In the section “Nature of God,” Fackenheim talks about the natural limitations for humans in how they see God. He states, “It is impossible for us to picture God as He must be” (page 80). Even though, according to Fackenheim, we can't picture God, God is regularly portrayed in popular culture. List some of the books, movies, or songs that have done this. Do you think the representations were appropriate? Do any of them fit into your vision of God?
- “If the universe is created by a good and all-powerful God, why does He create evil, or at least permit evil to exist?” (page 82). How would you answer this question? What hand do you think God has in the evil in the world? How would you define evil?
- Fackenheim struggled with the Holocaust for a long time. Much of his work is devoted to reconciling where God was during the Holocaust and what Jews need to do now, to honor the atrocity properly. In the section “God in the Age of Auschwitz,” Fackenheim refers to one of the most memorable scenes from Ellie Wiesel's book Night, where a young boy is hanged and someone whispers in Wiesel's ear, “Where is God? Where is He now?” In a meeting between the two men, Fackenheim recalls that “during a walk on New York's Fifth Avenue he once told me that he could not respect a God lacking power.” Fackenheim continues with his thoughts, “The God that hangs with that boy on the Auschwitz gallows, however, does lack power. He lacks it absolutely, and this because He persists in His intimacy with His people” (page 88). What do you think about Wiesel's recorded moment in history? Do you think God was lacking power there? What do you think about Fackenheim's deduction?
Chapter 7: Eugene B. Borowitz
- Borowitz calls his approach to Judaism holistic, meaning for him “a vision of a Judaism in which God and the Jewish people stand in an ongoing relationship structured by Torah as record and mandate, and the background of whose practice is God's relationship with all humankind” (page 93). What do you think about this statement? How do you envision your Judaism? Do you believe that God is continually in a partnership with the Jewish people? What role does Torah play in your vision of Judaism?
- In the section “God: The Ground of Our Values,” Borowitz talks about a covenant theology and what that means. When talking about the people Israel, he writes, “Since Jews can fulfill the Covenant relationship anywhere, it becomes possible to validate Diaspora existence. Jewish life there, however, will be judged not only in terms of faithfulness to God but in terms of its creation of the sense of community so fundamental to the Covenant” (page 98). Each Jew who lives outside of the State of Israel is considered a Diaspora Jew. As a Jew living in the United States, do you think it is more difficult to be Jewish in the Diaspora than in Israel? Do you think your peers in Israel judge you for being a Jew in the Diaspora? Do you ever feel that sense of community Borowitz describes as necessary within your own Jewish community?
- Borowitz spends a lot of time talking about evil and what the existence of evil in the world means about our God. Does that make God limited in power? Does that mean God allows the evil to happen? Borowitz writes, “I also question whether a limited, so to speak, a weak God is worthy of worship and daily trust. Can such a God grow strong enough, as our tradition puts it, to bring the Days of the Messiah?” (page105). Do you think God is limited? Why do you feel the way you do? Depending on whether or not you believe God has limited powers, do you believe that we should question whether that God is strong enough to bring the Messiah?
- In the section “On Prayer,” Borowitz talks about how daily prayer came into his life after being sick: “First, I began to appreciate the aura of a life punctuated with berakhot. That started me learning how to respond to various situations with blessings, traditional ones or ones I make up to fit an occasion” (page 109). Is daily prayer a part of your life? If yes, please explain. If no, would you entertain the possibility of having it be part of your life? Do you feel that it might fill a void? Have you had daily experiences where you wished there had either been a prayer to say or that you knew a prayer to say?
Chapter 8: Richard L. Rubenstein
- In 1966 Rubenstein wrote, “I am compelled to say that we live in the time of the “death of God.” . . . When I say we live in the time of the death of God, I mean that the thread uniting God and man, heaven and earth, has been broken. We stand in a cold, silent, unfeeling cosmos, unaided by any purposeful power beyond our own resources” (page 116). Though Rubenstein has now redefined his position on this, what do you make of it? What might have been the contributing factors that helped him formulate this belief? Have you had a time in your life where you might have felt the same way? Explain.
- Rubenstein writes, “We live in a culture which tends to stress what we can do rather than what we can become” (page 121). How does this statement make you feel? Do you believe it is an accurate portrayal of America today? What do you teach your children to help counteract this belief? Do you assess your own life by what you can do, or by what you have become?
- In the third section, Rubenstein speaks of God as being a “Holy Nothingness.” He elaborates on this idea with a metaphor: “God is the ocean and we the waves. Each wave has its moment when it is identifiable as a somewhat separate entity. Nevertheless, no wave is entirely distinct from the ocean, which is its substantial ground. Furthermore, because the waves are surface manifestations of the ocean, our knowledge of the ocean is largely dependent upon the way the ocean manifests itself in the waves” (page 128). Do you feel that the connection between humans and God that is discussed here is accurate? Do you believe that your identity is partly made up of your relationship with others (whether that does or does not include God)? Are we dependent on these other relationships?
Chapter 9: Zalman Schachter-Shalomi
- Schachter-Shalomi goes to great lengths to describe how one could set up a “God's corner.” What do you think of this concept? Is it something you would want to have in your house? Would another location make more sense to you? What types of things might you want when you are spending time connecting to God? Do you do specific types of things in your special place?
- In the section “What Can One Say about God?” Schachter-Shalomi takes each letter of the Tetragrammaton and associates it with something in an effort to help better define God and, in doing so, supports why we cannot pronounce it. What do you think about how he breaks up the word and looks at it in parts? He uses the Sh'ma as a refocusing point after each segment; what is the central prayer for you? How do you feel about the different names for God in the Bible? Does one speak to you more than others?
- Based on these texts, how is the Jewish Renewal approach to finding God/having a relationship with God different from your movement of Judaism? Does anything in the texts surprise you? Do the texts speak to you?
Chapter 10: Harold M. Schulweis
- In the section, “From God to Godliness,” Schulweis asks, “And what difference does there appear to be in the minds of those who are willing to affirm (a) that that which heals the sick is godly while denying (b) that it is God who heals the sick?” (page 148). How would you answer this question? Do you think the statements are different? If so, why? What role do you believe God has in healing the sick?
- Schulweis writes, “The Tzelem Elohim signifies both the uniqueness and universality of the human soul. While no man is a clone of another, all human beings, regardless of race or religion, are born imprinted with the Image of the Imageless God. The powers of the Image within are variously named: soul, spirit, breath, intellect, will, conscience. Every child enters the world stamped by the divine Image” (page 152). Do you believe this statement? Is this true for people of every religion? Only Jews? If only Jews, do you think Jews-by-choice receive this “stamp”? Do you think that God is within you?
- How would you define the word “miracle”? Do you think God has a hand in creating miracles? Do you believe you have ever experienced a miracle? If so, what made it so for you? Would other people consider it such as well? Schulweis defines a miracle as “an event that signifies something of Ôsign-ificance,' something that makes an important difference in my life or in the life of my community. A miracle is an intimation of an experience of transcending meaning. The sign-miracle does not refer to something beyond or contrary to logic or nature. It refers to events and experiences that take notice of the extraordinary in the ordinary, the wonder in the everyday, the marvel in the routine” (page 161). How does this definition fit with yours?
Chapter 11: Alvin J. Reines
- Reines gives four views about the word God (pages 172)
- Theopanism: “God is of an entity that is not separate from the universe” (page 172).
- Theosupernaturalism: “God is of an entity who is separate from the universe, and who has the power to interrupt through miracles the ordinary or natural course of the universe” (page 172).
- Theonaturalism: “God is of an entity that is separate from the universe, and that either creates the natural universe, or is an essential part of the processes that give rise to the natural universe” (page 173).
- Anteonomatism: “The word God . . . has no reality meaning, that is, the word God refers to no actual being or reality of any kind” (page 173).
Does your view of God fit into one of these categories? Do you think that these categories cover the whole spectrum? Do you think something is missing? If so, what? Do you agree with Reines when he states that Judaism at one point in time fit into all of the categories?
- According to Reines, “two classes of existence, each with its distinctive nature, can be distinguished: the possible and the actual. Possible existence suffers this defect: it lacks actuality. . . . For the actually existent is always limited; nothing unlimited can be experienced or imagined, let alone conceived. Hence to be actual is to be finite” (page 182). Which concept is more comfortable for you and why? Which concept do you think God fits into and why? Do you think religion allows God to be defined as possible existence, actual existence, or at times both? Give reasons.
- “The world was not created by an absolute God who arbitrarily willed it so; rather the world exists because the divine existence is unconditionally dependent upon it” (page 183). What do you make of this statement? In what ways is God dependent upon the world? Have you ever thought of God getting something in return from His creations? If yes, explain. Do you think that whatever that is helps to sustain God?
Chapter 12: Harold S. Kushner
- Kushner recalls, “Some years back, a Soviet cosmonaut emerged from his space capsule and announced triumphantly that he had circled the earth several dozen times without bumping into God or any of His angels. He thought he was proving that God didn't exist and that religion was therefore false. Actually, he was only noting that God was not a thing, an object occupying space with which a spaceship might collide” (page 191). The section “God Is Not a Thing,” Kushner tries to explain that God is endless possibilities in every direction. Was there a time in your life where you felt like you could touch God? Do you think the cosmonaut, instead of thinking he had disproved religion, should have felt differently? If yes, in what ways? Does the idea that God is intangible make God even harder to understand and be part of your life?
- In the section “God Gives Us Strength,” Kushner talks about how prayer can really help someone in a time of need. Has there ever been a time when you have turned to prayer? Did you feel like it helped in some way, or did you feel let down? When speaking with a young widow, Kusher asked, “In your desperation, you opened your heart in prayer, and what happened? You didn't get a miracle to avert a tragedy. But you discovered people around you, and God beside you, and strength within you to help you survive the tragedy. I offer that as an example of a prayer being answered” (page 195). Do you think Kushner's explanation is comforting? Might you look at using prayer in a tough situation differently now?
- Kushner writes, “Where is God? God is found in the incredible resiliency of the human soul, in our willingness to love though we understand how vulnerable love makes us, in our determination to go on affirming the value of life even when events in the world would seem to teach us that life is cheap. God is found in our insistence on finding our way through the valley of the shadow, knowing that there is evil in the world, knowing that some of the time the evil may overpower us, yet fearing no evil, Ôfor Thou art with me'” (page 199). Has there ever been a time in your life when you have asked the question “Where is God?” At those times, what types of answers did you come up with? Did those answers change the way you looked at the world? Over your lifetime, has the answer to the question changed for you?
Chapter 13: Richard N. Levy
- Levy writes, “[The] answerÑthat to be human is to believe there are connections in the worldÑconvinces me that most peopleÑperhaps all peopleÑbelieve in God, whether they acknowledge it or not. . . . Not to believe in the interconnectedness of the universe is to fly in the face of what we know about science, the strong emotions we feel for others, and the great and humbling phenomena in nature” (page 202). If you believe in the interconnectedness of the world, does that belief reaffirm your belief in God? What connections have you had in your life where you felt a connectedness to God? Do you think believing in connections is proof enough that one believes in God? Why or why not?
- In the section “When We Study Torah, Is God the Teacher?” Levy states, “One of the more penetrating criticisms leveled at Jewish religious education is that too often it is not religious. Its curricula may teach Jewish history, language, customs, and creativity, but too often it does not convey the way these studies manifest the working of God in the life of the Jewish people and of Jewish individuals” (page 208). What was your Jewish education like? Do you remember spending time talking about God and your personal theology? Were you ever told that you had to believe in God or a specific type of God? If you could go through it again now, what changes would you like to make to curriculums you sat through? If you have children, is God coming up in their education? Do you believe you can only discuss God through traditional Jewish text?
- In Levy's discussion on God and prayer he writes, “I knew that one of the ways to discover whether God was listening to me was by my listening for God” (page 216). What do you think about this statement? Do you believe this could work for you? Could this type of concept also work with the people we care about?
Chapter 14: Judith Plaskow
- Plaskow states, “I do not believe in a God who stand outside of history and manipulates it and who therefore can be charged with our moral failures” (page 225). What do you make of this statement? Does it fit with your belief? Do you believe that our moral failures, the evil we create is our fault? Is this linked to the concept of free will?
- As a feminist theologian, Plaskow spends a lot of time talking developing a female vocabulary for God. What do you think about this? Does the male-centered language of Judaism bother you? Reform Movement prayer books are now gender sensitive. What does that mean to you? If you are familiar with them, do you like them that way? Has making things gender sensitive changed anything about your Judaism?
- Plaskow describes God as a warrior, a king, a judge, a father, a lover, a friend, a companion, and finally as a cocreator. Which of these speak to you? Would you describe God differently? Would you like to see more feminine nouns? If so, does that lessen God in any way? Can you find each of these images in the Torah? In our liturgy?
Chapter 15: Margaret Moers Wenig
- What do you think of Wenig's description of God?
- Have you ever thought of God in such a tangible way?
- Can you imagine what she is talking about with her description?
- Do you think the interaction between God and a person might go that way?
- Do you think that God has this parent-type relationship with God's creations?
Concluding Questions
- Now that you have read various theologians and their thoughts, does any one in particular resonate with you?
- Has this book made you look at your personal theology? If so, has it changed it in any way?
- Do you look at the world around you differently at all because of these readings?
- If you had to teach a theology to either a group of adults or children, what would it be and why?
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